How to Design Programs
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I Processing Simple Forms of Data
l1 1 Students, Teachers, and Computers
l1 2 Numbers, Expressions, Simple Programs
-- 2.1 Numbers and Arithmetic
-- 2.2 Variables and Programs
-- 2.3 Word Problems
-- 2.4 Errors
-- 2.5 Designing Programs
l2 3 Programs are Function Plus Variable Definitions
-- 3.1 Composing Functions
-- 3.2 Variable Definitions
-- 3.3 Finger Exercises on Composing Functions
l2 4 Conditional Expressions and Functions
-- 4.1 Booleans and Relations
-- 4.2 Functions that Test Conditions
-- 4.3 Conditionals and Conditional Functions
-- 4.4 Designing Conditional Functions
l2 5 Symbolic Information
-- 5.1 Finger Exercises with Symbols
l3 6 Compound Data, Part 1: Structures
-- 6.1 Structures
-- 6.2 Extended Exercise: Drawing Simple Pictures
-- 6.3 Structure Definitions
-- 6.4 Data Definitions
-- 6.5 Designing Functions for Compound Data
-- 6.6 Extended Exercise: Moving Circles and Rectangles
-- 6.7 Extended Exercise: Hangman
l3 7 The Varieties of Data
-- 7.1 Mixing and Distinguishing Data
-- 7.2 Designing Functions for Mixed Data
-- 7.3 Composing Functions, Revisited
-- 7.4 Extended Exercise: Moving Shapes
-- 7.5 Input Errors
8 Intermezzo 1: Syntax and Semantics
8.1 The Scheme Vocabulary
8.2 The Scheme Grammar
8.3 The Meaning of Scheme
8.4 Errors
8.5 Boolean Expressions
8.6 Variable Definitions
8.7 Structure Definitions
II Processing Arbitrarily Large Data
l3 9 Compound Data, Part 2: Lists
-- 9.1 Lists
-- 9.2 Data Definitions for Lists of Arbitrary Length
-- 9.3 Processing Lists of Arbitrary Length
-- 9.4 Designing Functions for Self-Referential Data Definitions
-- 9.5 More on Processing Simple Lists
l3 10 More on Processing Lists
-- 10.1 Functions that Produce Lists
-- 10.2 Lists that Contain Structures
-- 10.3 Extended Exercise: Moving Pictures
l3 11 Natural Numbers
-- 11.1 Defining Natural Numbers
-- 11.2 Processing Natural Numbers of Arbitrary Size
-- 11.3 Extended Exercise: Creating Lists, Testing Functions
-- 11.4 Alternative Data Definitions for Natural Numbers
-- 11.5 More on the Nature of Natural Numbers
12 Composing Functions, Revisited Again
12.1 Designing Complex Programs
12.2 Recursive Auxiliary Functions
12.3 Generalizing Problems, Generalizing Functions
12.4 Extended Exercise: Rearranging Words
l3 13 Intermezzo 2: List Abbreviations
III More on Processing Arbitrarily Large Data
14 More Self-referential Data Definitions
14.1 Structures in Structures
14.2 Extended Exercise: Binary Search Trees
14.3 Lists in Lists
14.4 Extended Exercise: Evaluating Scheme
15 Mutually Referential Data Definitions
15.1 Lists of Structures, Lists in Structures
15.2 Designing Functions for Mutually Referential Definitions
15.3 Extended Exercise: More on Web Pages
16 Development through Iterative Refinement
16.1 Data Analysis
16.2 Defining Data Classes and Refining Them
16.3 Refining Functions and Programs
17 Processing Two Complex Pieces of Data
17.1 Processing Two Lists Simultaneously: Case 1
17.2 Processing Two Lists Simultaneously: Case 2
17.3 Processing Two Lists Simultaneously: Case 3
17.4 Function Simplification
17.5 Designing Functions that Consume Two Complex Inputs
17.6 Exercises on Processing Two Complex Inputs
17.7 Extended Exercise: Evaluating Scheme, Part 2
17.8 Equality and Testing
18 Intermezzo 3: Local Definitions and Lexical Scope
18.1 Organizing Programs with local
18.2 Lexical Scope and Block Structure
IV Abstracting Designs
19 Similarities in Definitions
19.1 Similarities in Functions
19.2 Similarities in Data Definitions
20 Functions are Values
20.1 Syntax and Semantics
20.2 Contracts for Abstract and Polymorphic Functions
21 Designing Abstractions from Examples
21.1 Abstracting from Examples
21.2 Finger Exercises with Abstract List Functions
21.3 Abstraction and a Single Point of Control
21.4 Extended Exercise: Moving Pictures, Again
21.5 Note: Designing Abstractions from Templates
22 Designing Abstractions with First-Class Functions
22.1 Functions that Produce Functions
22.2 Designing Abstractions with Functions-as-Values
22.3 A First Look at Graphical User Interfaces
23 Mathematical Examples
23.1 Sequences and Series
23.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Series
23.3 Geometric Sequences and Series
23.4 The Area Under a Function
23.5 The Slope of a Function
24 Intermezzo 4: Defining Functions on the Fly
V Generative Recursion
25 A New Form of Recursion
25.1 Modeling a Ball on a Table
25.2 Sorting Quickly
26 Designing Algorithms
26.1 Termination
26.2 Structural versus Generative Recursion
26.3 Making Choices
27 Variations on a Theme
27.1 Fractals
27.2 From Files to Lines, from Lists to Lists of Lists
27.3 Binary Search
27.4 Newton's Method
27.5 Extended Exercise: Gaussian Elimination
28 Algorithms that Backtrack
28.1 Traversing Graphs
28.2 Extended Exercise: Checking (on) Queens
29 Intermezzo 5: The Cost of Computing and Vectors
29.1 Concrete Time, Abstract Time
29.2 The Definition of ``on the Order of''
29.3 A First Look at Vectors
VI Accumulating Knowledge
30 The Loss of Knowledge
30.1 A Problem with Structural Processing
30.2 A Problem with Generative Recursion
31 Designing Accumulator-Style Functions
31.1 Recognizing the Need for an Accumulator
31.2 Accumulator-Style Functions
31.3 Transforming Functions into Accumulator-Style
32 More Uses of Accumulation
32.1 Extended Exercise: Accumulators on Trees
32.2 Extended Exercise: Missionaries and Cannibals
32.3 Extended Exercise: Board Solitaire
33 Intermezzo 6: The Nature of Inexact Numbers
33.1 Fixed-size Number Arithmetic
33.2 Overflow
33.3 Underflow
33.4 DrScheme's Numbers
VII Changing the State of Variables
34 Memory for Functions
35 Assignment to Variables
35.1 Simple Assignments at Work
35.2 Sequencing Expression Evaluations
35.3 Assignments and Functions
35.4 A First Useful Example
36 Designing Functions with Memory
36.1 The Need for Memory
36.2 Memory and State Variables
36.3 Functions that Initialize Memory
36.4 Functions that Change Memory
37 Examples of Memory Usage
37.1 Initializing State
37.2 State Changes from User Interactions
37.3 State Changes from Recursion
37.4 Finger Exercises on State Changes
37.5 Extended Exercise: Exploring Places
38 Intermezzo 7: The Final Syntax and Semantics
38.1 The Vocabulary of Advanced Scheme
38.2 The Grammar of Advanced Scheme
38.3 The Meaning of Advanced Scheme
38.4 Errors in Advanced Scheme
VIII Changing Compound Values
39 Encapsulation
39.1 Abstracting with State Variables
39.2 Practice with Encapsulation
40 Mutable Structures
40.1 Structures from Functions
40.2 Mutable Functional Structures
40.3 Mutable Structures
40.4 Mutable Vectors
40.5 Changing Variables, Changing Structures
41 Designing Functions that Change Structures
41.1 Why Mutate Structures
41.2 Structural Design Recipes and Mutation, Part 1
41.3 Structural Design Recipes and Mutation, Part 2
41.4 Extended Exercise: Moving Pictures, a Last Time
42 Equality
42.1 Extensional Equality
42.2 Intensional Equality
43 Changing Structures, Vectors, and Objects
43.1 More Practice with Vectors
43.2 Collections of Structures with Cycles
43.3 Backtracking with State
An Introduction to Scheme and its Implementation
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* Overview
o Scheme: A Small But Powerful Language
o Who Is this Book For?
o Why Scheme?
o Why Scheme Now?
o What this Book Is Not
o Structure of this Book
* Introduction
l1 o What is Scheme? (Hunk A)
o Basic Scheme Features
l1,l2 + Code Consists of Expressions
-- # Parenthesized Prefix Expressions
-- # Expressions Return Values, But May Have Side-Effects
-- # Defining Variables and Procedures
-- # Most Operators are Procedures
-- # Definitions vs. Assignments
-- # Special Forms
-- # Control Structures are Expressions
l1 + The Boolean Values #t and #f
l2 + Some Other Control-Flow Constructs: cond, and, and or
-- # cond
-- # and and or
l1 + Comments (Hunk C)
l2 + A Note about Parentheses and Indenting
-- # Let Your Editor Help You
-- # Indenting Procedure Calls and Simple Control Constructs
-- # Indenting cond
-- # Indenting Procedure Definitions
l1 + All Values are Pointers to Objects
l1 # All Values are Pointers
# Implementations Optimize Away Pointers
# Objects on the Heap
+ Scheme Reclaims Memory Automatically
l1 + Objects Have Types, Variables Don't
l1 # Dynamic typing
l3 + The Empty List (Hunk E)
l3 o Pairs and Lists
-- + cdr-linked lists
-- + Lists and Quoting
-- + Where the Empty List Got its Name
o Recursion Over Lists and Other Data Structures
l3 o Type and Equality Predicates (Hunk G)
-- + Type Predicates
-- + Equality Predicates
-- + Choosing Equality Predicates (Hunk I)
l3 o Quoting and Literals
-- + Simple Literals and Self-Evaluation
o Local Variables and Lexical Scope
l2 + let
-- # Indenting let Expressions
+ Lexical Scope
# Binding Environments and Binding Contours
# Block Structure Diagrams for lets
l2 + let*
o Procedures (Hunk K)
+ Procedures are First Class
+ Higher-Order Procedures
+ Anonymous Procedures and lambda
+ lambda and Lexical Scope (Hunk M)
l2 + Local Definitions
+ Recursive Local Procedures and letrec
+ Multiple defines are like a letrec
l2 + Variable Arity: Procedures that Take a Variable Number of Arguments
+ apply
l2 o Variable Binding Again
-- + Identifiers and Variables
-- + Variables vs. Bindings vs. Values
o Tail Recursion (Hunk O)
o Macros
o Continuations
o Iteration Constructs
o Discussion and Review
* Using Scheme (A Tutorial)
o An Interactive Programming Environment (Hunk B)
+ Starting Scheme
+ Making mistakes and recovering from them
+ Returns and Parentheses
+ Interrupting Scheme
+ Exiting (Quitting) Scheme
+ Trying Out More Expressions
l2 + Booleans and Conditionals
l2 + Sequencing
+ Other Flow-of-control Structures
# Using cond
# Using and and or
l3 + Making Some Objects (Hunk D)
l3 + Lists (Hunk F)
l2 o Using Predicates (Hunk H)
-- + Using Type Predicates
-- + Using Equality Predicates
o Local Variables, let, and Lexical Scope (Hunk J)
o Using First-Class, Higher-Order, and Anonymous Procedures (Hunk L)
+ First-Class Procedures
+ Using and Writing Higher-Order Procedures
o Interactively Changing a Program (Hunk N)
+ Replacing Procedure Values
+ Loading Code from a File
+ Loading and Running Whole Programs
o Some Other Useful Data Types
l3 + Strings
l3 + Symbols
-- # A Note on Identifiers
l3 + Lists Again
-- # Heterogeneous Lists
-- # Operations on Lists
o Basic Programming Examples (Hunk P)
+ An Error Signaling Routine
+ length
+ Copying Lists
+ append and reverse
# append
# reverse
+ map and for-each
# map
# for-each
+ member and assoc, and friends
# member, memq, and memv
# assoc, assq, and assv
o Procedural Abstraction
+ Procedure Specialization
+ Procedure Composition
+ Currying
o Discussion and Review
* Writing an Interpreter
o Interpretation and Compilation
o Implementing a Simple Interpreter
+ The Read-Eval-Print Loop
+ The Reader
# Implementing read
# Implementing read-list
# Comments on the Reader
+ Recursive Evaluation
+ A Note on Snarfing and Bootstrapping
# Snarfing
# Bootstrapping and Cross-compiling
+ Improving the Simple Interpreter
o Discussion and Review
* Environments and Procedures
o Understanding let and lambda
+ let
+ lambda
# define and lambda
# Currying
# Procedures are Closures
o Lambda is cheap, and Closures are Fast
o An Interpreter with let and lambda
+ Nested Environments and Recursive Evaluation
+ Integrated, Extensible Treatment of Special Forms
+ Interpreting let
+ Variable References and set!
+ Interpreting lambda and Procedure Calling
# Mutual Recursion Between Eval and Apply
o Variants of let: letrec and let*
+ Understanding letrec
# Using letrec and lambda to Implement Modules
+ let*
o Iteration Constructs
+ Named let
o Programming with Procedures and Environments
o do
o Exercises
* Recursion in Scheme
o Subproblems and Reductions (non-tail and tail calls)
o The Continuation Chain
o Exploiting Tail Recursion
+ Passing Intermediate Values as Arguments
# Summing a List
# Implementing length tail-recursively
+ reduce
* Quasiquotation and Macros
o quasiquote
+ unquote-splicing
o Defining New Special Forms
+ Macros vs. Procedures
o Implementing More Scheme Special Forms
+ let
+ let*
+ cond
+ Discussion
o Lisp-style Macros
+ Ultra-simple Lispish Macros
# Better Lisp-style Macros
# Problems With Lisp-Style Macros
# Ugly Hacks Around Name Conflicts
o Implementing Simple Macros and Quasiquote
+ Implementing Simple Macros
+ Implementing quasiquote and unquote
# Translating backquotes to quasiquote
# quasiquote
# define-rewriter
# define-macro
o Procedural Macros vs. Template-filling Macros
o Programming Examples Using Macros
* Records and Object Orientation
o Records
+ Data Abstraction
+ Implementing Records
o Objects
+ Object Orientation
+ Implementing a Simple Object System
# Generic Functions and Dynamic Dispatch
# Inheritance
* Other Useful Features
o Special Forms
o Input-Output Facilities
+ read and write
+ display
+ Ports
+ with-input-\dots{} Forms
o Useful Types and Associated Procedures
+ Numeric Types
# Floating-Point Numbers
# Arbitrary-Precision Integers
# Ratios
# Coercions and Exactness
+ Vectors
+ Strings and Characters
* call-with-current-continuation
o Implementing a Better Read-Eval-Print Loop
o Implementing Catch and Throw
o Implementing Backtracking
o Implementing Coroutines
o Implementing Cooperative Multitasking
o Caveats about call-with-current-continuation
* A Simple Scheme Compiler
o What is a Compiler?
+ What is an Interpreter?
+ OK, so what's a compiler?
o What Does a Compiler Generate?
o Basic Structure of the Compiler
o Data Representations, Calling Convention, etc.
+ The Registers
+ The Evaluation Stack (or Eval Stack, for short)
+ The Continuation Chain
+ Environments
+ Closure Representation and Calling
o Continuations
+ Applying a Procedure Doesn't Save the Caller's State
+ Continuation Saving
+ An Example
+ Generating Unique Labels
o More on Representations of Environments
o Compiling Code for Literals
o Compiling Code for Top-Level Variable References
o Precomputing Local Variable Lookups using Lexical Scope
+ Lexical Addressing and Compile-Time Environments
+ A Detailed Example
o Preserving Tail-Recursiveness using Compile-Time Continuations
+ When Should We Save Continuations?
# Compiling Returns
o Compiling Top-Level Expressions
o Compiling lambda Expressions Inside Procedures
o Compiling Top-level Definitions
o Interfacing to the Runtime System
+ Garbage Collection
# Safe Points
# GC at Any Time
+ Interrupts
o Advanced Compiler and Runtime System Techniques
+ Inlining Small Procedures
+ Type Declarations and Type Analysis
+ Using More Hardware Registers
+ Closure Analysis
+ Register Allocating Loop Variables for Loops
+ Conventional Optimizations
+ Stack Caches
* Concept Index
Practical Common Lisp
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l1 1. Introduction: Why Lisp?
-- Why Lisp?
-- Where It Began
-- Who This Book Is For
l1 2. Lather, Rinse, Repeat: A Tour of the REPL
-- Choosing a Lisp Implementation
-- Getting Up and Running with Lisp in a Box
-- Free Your Mind: Interactive Programming
-- Experimenting in the REPL
-- "Hello, World," Lisp Style
-- Saving Your Work
3. Practical: A Simple Database
l1,l2 4. Syntax and Semantics
-- What's with All the Parentheses?
-- Breaking Open the Black Box
-- S-expressions
-- S-expressions As Lisp Forms
-- Function Calls
-- Special Operators
Macros
-- Truth, Falsehood, and Equality
-- Formatting Lisp Code
l2 5. Functions
-- Defining New Functions
-- Function Parameter Lists
-- Optional Parameters
-- Rest Parameters
-- Keyword Parameters
-- Mixing Different Parameter Types
-- Function Return Values
Functions As Data, a.k.a. Higher-Order Functions
Anonymous Functions
6. Variables
l2 Variable Basics
Lexical Variables and Closures
Dynamic, a.k.a. Special, Variables
l2 Constants
l2 Assignment
Generalized Assignment
Other Ways to Modify Places
7. Macros: Standard Control Constructs
l2 WHEN and UNLESS
l2 COND
l2 AND, OR, and NOT
Looping
DOLIST and DOTIMES
DO
The Mighty LOOP
8. Macros: Defining Your Own
9. Practical: Building a Unit Test Framework
l3 10. Numbers, Characters, and Strings
-- Numbers
-- Numeric Literals
-- Basic Math
-- Numeric Comparisons
-- Higher Math
-- Characters
-- Character Comparisons
-- Strings
-- String Comparisons
l3 11. Collections
-- Vectors
-- Subtypes of Vector
-- Vectors As Sequences
-- Sequence Iterating Functions
-- Higher-Order Function Variants
-- Whole Sequence Manipulations
-- Sorting and Merging
-- Subsequence Manipulations
-- Sequence Predicates
-- Sequence Mapping Functions
-- Hash Tables
-- Hash Table Iteration
l3 12. They Called It LISP for a Reason: List Processing
-- "There Is No List"
-- Functional Programming and Lists
-- "Destructive" Operations
-- Combining Recycling with Shared Structure
-- List-Manipulation Functions
-- Mapping
-- Other Structures
l3 13. Beyond Lists: Other Uses for Cons Cells
-- Trees
-- Sets
-- Lookup Tables: Alists and Plists
-- DESTRUCTURING-BIND
14. Files and File I/O
15. Practical: A Portable Pathname Library
16. Object Reorientation: Generic Functions
17. Object Reorientation: Classes
18. A Few FORMAT Recipes
19. Beyond Exception Handling: Conditions and Restarts
20. The Special Operators
21. Programming in the Large: Packages and Symbols
22. LOOP for Black Belts
23. Practical: A Spam Filter
24. Practical: Parsing Binary Files
25. Practical: An ID3 Parser
26. Practical: Web Programming with AllegroServe
27. Practical: An MP3 Database
28. Practical: A Shoutcast Server
29. Practical: An MP3 Browser
30. Practical: An HTML Generation Library, the Interpreter
31. Practical: An HTML Generation Library, the Compiler
32. Conclusion: What's Next?
